• Toponyms generally outlive their creators, thus locally disappeared and even ‘dead’ languages are not necessarily deprived of their importance from a toponymic point of view.
  
  
• Dead languages may come to life in toponyms.
  
  
• Substrata: residues of local predecessor languages in unrelated immigrant successor languages.
  
  
• To understand toponymy or language in general, knowledge of settlement history is indispensable.

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