Pál Kovács — Dr. Mátyás Márton:
In:
Csáti Ernő (szerk.): Hungarian Cartographical Studies. Hungarian
National Comitte, International Cartographic Association, Budapest, 1989
The
Institute of Relief Maps (Domborművű Térképészeti Műintézet) was
established in 1927 by István Turner, a cartographer. The institute began to
produce globes in 1930; the first globes had a diameter of 11 cm and 17 cm,
while a year later 20 and 25 cm globes were already on sale. The biggest piece
of the series was a 40 cm political globe.
It
was Turner’s institute that produced the first Hungarian relief globe in 1930.
This globe, ;which showed the physical geographical features of the Earth, was
compiled with the contribution of Károly Kogutowicz,—a professor at the
university of the town of Szeged. The globe presented not only the elements of
relief, but also showed —the ocean currents and international boundaries. The
relief globe was printed in seven colours and was a unique demonstration aid
for teachers of geography. Its political version was published after 1937.
Turner’s
institute also made illuminated globes in various sizes. The multi-colour
products were printed by the (Royal) State Mapping Institute of Hungary (Magyar
Királyi Állami Térképészeti Intézet).
The
Institute of Relief Maps was nationalized after 1945, its name changed to
Capital Neon (Fővárosi Neon), first and later to Educational Equipment
Saling Enterprise (Iskolai Felszereléseket Értékesitő Vállalat or IFÉRT).
The globes were published until 1951 on the basis of modificating the old
products: the changes that occured after World War II were added and the
spelling of most popular names was corrected.
The
first pieces of the new series were made in 1953; Lajos Füsi, also contributed
to the compilation work. The cartographic execution of the 11, 20, 25 and 40 cm
diameter physical and political (different countries tinted in different
colours) globes was stopped by the mid - 1950s, but they were continuously
produced until 1957; thereafter, 40 cm globes were.only on sale by IFÉRT for
schools.
Globes
had to be imported by Cartographia to meet the needs of general public.
In
the traditional technology the globe consists of the ball itself and its cover.
The. ball may be made of papier-maché, gypsum, glass, plastic, etc.
The map cover is normally printed on good quality paper, which is then cut into
segments and manually mounted on the ball. In the case of semiplastic globes
only the ball is made of plastic. In modern globes production the map eontent
is printed on the plastic sheets that are then formed into globes (usually into
two semi-globes).
–
In the case of self-supporting plastic globes the information is printed on
thick plastic, therefore, the plastic globe is stable and needs no
additional base. (This type includes, for instance, the globes made in the USSR
by the Main Administration for Geodesy and Cartography).
–
When the map is printed on plastic foil, the material is unable to sustain
itself as a.globe, therefore, a plastic ball is placed thereunder. (E.g., the
globes of the Danish firm, SCAN.) Both types of globes are collectively known
as plastic globes.
In
the early 1960s, a series of experiments was started to produce plastic base
globes at the Department of Cartography, Lóránd Eötvös University of Sciences,
under the guidance of Lajos Füsi:
An
outstanding piece of this work — made in 1966 — is a 212 cm diameter
illuminated relief globe, which was hand coloured. This product is exhibited in
the Transport Museum of Budapest. Further, successful products followed in
1966: a 50 cm diameter illuminated geophysical globe, and another 50 cm relief
globe that presented submarine relief as well. These single, plastic base
globes — but not completely made of plastic — are on display at the Department
of Cartography. Experiments on the large scale production of plastic globes were
also started in the early 1970s, although several problems were successfully
solved, the work stopped in the mid-1970s.
The
technical and technological conditions for globes production were only available
by the mid-1960s at the Cartographic Enterprise. The production process —
outdated by now — has not been basically changed since its experimental
introduction in 1965/66. The process of globes production may be divided into
three phases: — Production of the ball and the frame, Cartographic work
(ineluding printing), — Mounting of the cartographic product (coloured map)
onto the ball and other work (such as gelling, lacquering, framing, packing
etc.).
At
the beginning — appr. in the period 1966—1975 —, Cartographia tried to
undertake all three phases. However, the number of products made this way was
not enough for the home market either. Although the production technology was
not basically modernized, the solution of several minor problems led to a
significant rise in globes production.
This
quantitative development dates back to 1973/74, when the parts of the 13 cm
globe were made of plastic and by injection moulding. ln 1974/75 in. the case
of 25 cm diameter globes production, the parts were also made by using this
technology; later, an agreement was achieved with TEXGRÁF an industrial
cooperative to produce 40—45 thousand balls annually. This cooperation solved
the problem of the mass production of balls and, on —the other hand, TEXGRÁF
undertook the labour—intensive and time consuming job of mounting.
The
Enterprise was almost able to fulfill the home demand for globes in three
categories: 13 cm political, 25 cm political and 25 cm illuminated globes.
Scattered
data are only available on the early period of production. These three types of
globes were produced appr. in 1500 pieces annually after 1966. Around 1974,
some 4—5 thousand pieces of 25 cm and 7—8 thousand pieces of 13 cm globes were
made by Cartographia. In 1976, homever, 10,000 pieces of 13 cm and 7,000 of 25
cm globes were already produced. The latter one also included more than 650
pieces of illuminated globes. There are exact figures available from 1977 on
the globes on sale in Hungary and produced by Cartographia.
A
significant increase in the export of globes is observable after 1984. The 25
cm political globe and its illuminated version, and the 16 cm physical globe
are on sale abroad too; they all are exported in English, German and Czech
versions. The 16 cm Czech language political, and·the 16 cm Polish language
physical globes were added in 1985. The 25 cm diameter physical globe is also
available in English, German and Czech languages since 1986.
As
the globes — together with their map content — ordered by TANÉRT are products
of the Cartographic Enterprise, they are also reviewed in this part of the
present paper. The map content of globes will be described according to their
publication order.
All globes present the Earth with a grid
of l0°, and show the two Tropics and Aretic circles too. Evidently, they
present the coastline and hydrography (rivers, lakes, reservoirs) of continents
and major islands.
All
political globes show the international boundaries and the maritime boundaries;
the surface of countries is tinted, the oceans are uniformly presented light
blue. (The general elements of maps will not be repeatedly described in the
description of individual globes.)
The
political globes do not show relief; the only exception is the illuminated
version of the 25 cm diameter globe. In this case, grey hill shading is printed
over the continents on the reverse side of the map of the normal globe (the
printing is accurately adjusted to the facing side); on maritime areas the
shading betwen 3000 and 6000 m depth is light blue, on those deeper than 6000 m
dark blue. This way, when the lamp inside the ball is switched on, the globe
shows the unlighted political map and the uniform light blue ocean areas as
well as the shaded picture of continental relief and the zone-coloured ocean
depths.
The
first version of the 40 cm diameter PHYSICAL GLOBE was made by the Cartographic
Enterprise in 1961 for the order of the Institute of Educational Aids (Iskolai
Szemléltető Eszközök Intézete, or ISZEI); later, in about 1975, a similar
globe — odered by TANÉRT — was produced for teachers. The latter globe was
basically modified in 1980/81; cold and warm ocean currents and the intersection
of the surface line of the plane of the Ecliptic (celestial equator) with the
Zodiac etc. were added. Eight colours were used in printing the map: dark blue,
light blue, dark brown, ochre, yellow, green, red and black. Its relief
representation — particularly on ocean areas — is already outdated. On this
globe colours were used for the hypsometric layers between the isolines of
5000, 2000, 500, 200, 0, (land below sea level), –200, –2000, –4000 and –6000
m; these coloured layers — without printing their isolines — serve as the
relief base, which is added with hill shading over the continents.
The
13 cm PHYSICAL GLOBE — ordered by ISZEI — was made in the early 1960s as a
demonstration part of a tellurium model. (The tellurium is a physical—astronomical
demonstration aid that shows the annual run of the Earth around the Sun; the
instrument is used to present the changes of seasons, the changes of the length
of daylight, the occurrences of eclipses of the Moon and the Sun.) The
compilation of the globe was started in 1961 by the reduction of the content of
the 40 cm globe. The elements of its content and the number of applied colours
are identical.
The
13 cm POLITICAL GLOBE was partly based on the relief version (grid, coastline,
hydrography). Its compilation began in the first half of the 1960s, while the
globe was published in 1966. Six eolours were used in its printing: dark blue,
light blue, red, yellow, green and black. In addition to general map elements,
the map also presented settlements according to classification (towns over
1,000,000 inhabitants, other towns, the capital were enhanced underlined),
polar research stations, transportation lines (railways, shipping routes, air
routes). Its last publication was in 1982; this globe was replaced by the 16 cm
political globe in 1983.
The
25 cm POLITICAL GLOBE was made in 1966. Its content was continuously corrected,
while it was basically revised in 1982, when the complete lettering was
changed. At present, the Enterprise produces this globe in five languages;
Hungarian: 1966 - 10; English: 1984 - 2; German: 1984 - 3; Czech: 1984 - 4+
Polish: 1987 - 2. (Here and later the language is followed by the year of first
edition and the number of editions.)
This
globe is printed in six colours: dark blue, light blue, yellow, red, pink and
black. (In the case of the illuminated version, the reverse side receives two
additional colours: grey and dark blue.) In addition to general map elements,
the map content includes the settlements according to various categories
(inhabitants over 1,000,000, between 500,000—1,000,000, 100,000—500,000,
50,000—100,000, under 50,000, where the capitals and the seats of dependent
territories are marked underlined), polar research stations, major railway
lines.
The
16 cm PHYSICAL GLOBE was made for primary schools in parallel with the revision
of the 40 cm teacher's physical globe in 1980/81. Accordingly, their content is
in harmony. In contrast with the other globes ordered by TANÉRT, for which the
Cartographic Enterprise produces and supplies the map cover only, these globes
are mounted and completed by the Cartographic Enterprise. However, their
Hungarian version for schools is not-distributed by the Cartographic
Enterprise. The globe is produced in several languages (Hungarian: 1981 - 2;
English: 1984 - 2; German: 1984 - 3; Polish: 1985 - 3; Czech: 1985 - 2).
The
40 cm diameter POLITICAL GLOBE was made in 1983, and it is partly based on the
content of the physical globe (grid, coastline, hydrography). The political elements
of the map content are synchronized with that of the 25 cm globe, but it also
presents the routes of air and shipping transport. Its colours are also
different. The globe has eight colours (dark blue, light blue, red, green,
lilac, yellow, ochre and black), and was produced for the order of TANÉRT. ·
The
16 cm POLITICAL GLOBE was made in parallel with the 40 cm political globe. In
its compilation the basic elements of the 16 cm physical globe were used (grid,
coastline, hydrography). This globe is produced in colours: dark blue, light
blue, red, yellow, ochre and black. It can be regarded as a relative of the 25
cm globes after its contect. The globe has two versions (Hungarian: 1983 - 3;
Czech: 1985 -2).
The
10 cm diameter POLITICAL GLOBE was and was ordered by TANÉRT in 1985, it was
reduced and derived from the 16 cm globe. This means.that these globes are
relatives by their content. TANÉRT distributes the globe for the general public
and not for educational institutions. It has two versions (Hungarian: 1985 - 2;
English: 1986 - 1).
The
compilation of the 25 cm PHYSICAL GLOBE began in 1985. It was simultaneously
prepared in four languages (Hungarian, German, English and Czech: 1986 - 2).
This is the most modern globe made in Hungary concerning the representation of
the continental and submarine relief. (The fullness of submarine relief on the
globe highly surpasses the details of the ocean maps at the same scale included
in the “Great World Atlas” of Cartographia, published in 1985. This improvement
is based on the use of new base materials, selection of proper legend, and on
recent research and its practical applications.)
The
isolines printed on the new 25 cm globe — 5000, 3000, 1500, 1000, 500, 200, 0,
(land below sea level), –200, –1000, –2000, –3000, –4000, –5000, –6000 and
–7000 m — are sometimes added with auxiliary or supplementary contour lines
over ocean areas. A picturesque relief representation is supported by the
application of hypsometric colouring over the continents and oceans and the
uniform hill shading. Another novelty compared with earlier practice is the use
of a greenish tone with restrained blue for ocean areas between 2—3000 and
3—4000 m zones; the application of this colour combination enhances the ridges
and the lower levels of continental slopes. This is why the large structural
units — continental shelves, deep sea basins, ridges — are expressively shown
on the globe. Eight colours were used: dark blue, light blue, light yellow,
grey, black, red, brown and green.
The
40 cm diameter DISMOUNTABLE STRUCTURAL—MORPHOLOGICAL EARTH MODEL is the latest
globe produced in 1986 upon the order of TANÉRT. This is the first Hungarian
thematic globe that was published in a large series.
The
idea originates from dr. LAJOS HAJDÚ, a geography teacher in the town of
Debrecen, who accepted the suggestions by the authors of the resent paper
concerning the improvement of the content and the practicability of the globe.
The improvements were as follows:
–
The Earth model shows the new submarine relief compiled for the 25 crn physical
globe and not that of the 40 cm teacher's globe, because the contours of
plate boundaries are advantageously supplernented with the new representation
of sea depths, and the relationship between relief and plate boundaries is
clearly expressed.
–
A new plate tectonic profile was drawn along the plane of the equator covering
a longitude of 180°; this figure is able to present both the active —
subductive — and passive continental shelves.
–
The contour lines over continental areas were printed in restrained grey on the
thematic content, which help the understanding of relationships between the
plate boundaries on continents and relief.
–
Continental and ocean areas hill shading in uniform restrained grey; this process helped
eliminating the basic problem of the globe; namely, the lands were dominated by
the theme of structure and morphology, while the picture of seas was dominated
by relief features. (Dr. Lajos Hajdú could not accept the propusal for a
uniform representation of structure and morphology both for land s and oceans.)
–
The explanations of signs were placed on an inside profile of the globe,
because they can not be lost there.
Several
new questions had to be answered while compiling the Earth model; these
problems arose from the cutting of the ball along the equator and the meridian.
In a joint venture, Cartographia made the ball cover and the inner profiles;
TANÉRT produced the balls and made the mounting as well.·
The
outer cover of the globe represents the structure and morphology of continents
and the subrnarine relief according to the ocean features representation of the
25 cm physical globe (hypsornetric layers are coloured and their contour lines
arc also visible). The expressiveness of relief on continents is supported by
the contour lines printed grey and the grey hi11 shading uniform over lands and
seas; the grey colour does not disturb the thematic content. The globe has a
uniform symbols system that shows the boundaries of lithosphere plates on the
whole Earth and that can distinguish approaching, departing and shifting plate
shelves.
The profiles contain information on the
internal structure of the Earth. The first profile shows the development of
theories on the inner build-up of the Earth from the model of Suess in 1896 to
the astrophysical Earth model by the Hungarian scientist, László Egyed in 1955.
The second profile presents the velocity of seismic waves, the changes in the
pressure and density from the surface to the centre of the Earth. The third
profile shows temperature values, changes in the chemical composition,
different surface boundaries defined by various seismic investigations, and the
scale—true internal structure from the surface to the Earth's centre
(lithosphere, astenosphere, mezosphere etc.) according to the theory of plate
tectonics.
The
fourth profile explains the relationship — between the central angles of the
sphere as a geometric figure and the geographical latitudes. The fifth profile
shows the plate tectonic model in the equatorial plane down to the mezosphere
with elevation distortion; the information can be explicitly corresponded to
the content of the map cover, the relief, structure and morphology. It gives an
easy view of the growing thickness of the crust under continents, the
relationship between the ocean plates intruding under the continents and the
deep sea trenches and volcanism in continents. The sixth profile contains the
explanation of symbols. The other profiles — the same figures without
inscriptions — are useful in controlling the pupils' understanding of the
subject.
The
cover of the ball and the map sections that contain the symbols were parallel
printed in eight colours: dark blue, light blue, dark yellow, light yellow, red,
brown, grey and black. The sheet of profiles was also printed in eight colours:
light blue, red, brown, dark yellow, orange, green, purple and black. Due to
the large number of joining edges, the mounting of the globe requires special
attention and highly precise work.
In
1988, also upon the order of TANÉRT, the English language version of the Earth
model was produced by the Cartographia.
Cartographia
had established the conditions for its independent globes production by the mid-1960s.
The experimental production started in 1965/66 became outdated by now; although
the method was not basically modernized, significant achievements were produced
concerning the content value of globes, their aesthetic picture and the growth
of quantity.
In
the second half of the 1960s three types of globes were made in Hungarian,
while in 1989 the Enterprise produces globes in five types and diameters in 21
language versions. In addition, the Cartographic Enterprise produces seven
versions of five different thematic and diametric globes for the order of
National Educational Aids Producing and Distributing Enterprise; they are
mostly used in education.